From around 5000 BC there were Neolithic cultures on the soil of what is
now Egypt. The earliest are known mainly from the Fayyum Basin and the
Nile Delta (Fayum-A culture, Merimde culture). People already lived from
agriculture and were able to produce simple, unpainted ceramics. The
dead were usually buried within the settlements without many grave
goods.
A study found that the population in ancient Egypt was genetically most
closely related to the inhabitants of the Middle East at the time. There
was also a close relationship with the Neolithic populations of the
Anatolian peninsula and Europe.
The Early Dynastic Period begins with the unification of Upper and Lower
Egypt under the mythological Pharaoh Menes.
From around 4500 BC there was the Badari culture in Upper Egypt. There
were obviously beginnings of copper processing. The dead were buried in
special cemeteries and sometimes richly equipped with grave goods.
The first king of the 1st dynasty was Narmer. A total of eight rulers
are assigned to the dynasty. They were buried in Abydos. Until the end
of the 1st dynasty, it was tradition that the closest relatives and
high-ranking servants followed the king into death. They were buried in
small, almost square side tombs next to the royal tomb.
In the 2nd dynasty, the Djoser pyramid was built in Saqqara, a step
pyramid, which is also the oldest.
The main source for the Old Kingdom, i.e. the period from the 3rd to the
6th dynasty, are the pyramids and their temple complexes. Texts were
found in the pyramid burial chambers of the 6th dynasty in particular,
which represent an extensive source of religious beliefs.
From the 4th dynasty onwards, the sun god Re finally became the most
important deity. Pharaoh Sneferu expanded the empire to the west and
south. The Red Pyramid in Dahshur near Saqqara is attributed to him. The
rulers Cheops, Chephren and Mykerinos built the pyramids of Giza.
Together they represent three quarters of the total pyramid mass.
The rulers of the 5th dynasty are better documented than those of the
previous dynasties. Their time is characterized by smaller pyramids,
often located near Abusir, and temples of the sun god Ra. The pharaohs
had to share their absolute power with the rising nobility and a growing
bureaucracy. We owe many of the surviving texts to the latter.
The last king of the 5th dynasty is considered to be Unas, who resided
in Heliopolis.
The 6th dynasty led to the decentralization of administrative structures
with administrators spread across the country; regional centers gained
in importance. The central government lost influence after military
campaigns against Libya, Nubia and Palestine.
Climate changes and the lack of Nile floods contributed to the decline
of the empire
After the 6th Dynasty, Egypt split into several territories for over a
century. Among the newly created centers of power, the cities of Thebes
and Herakleopolis gained particular influence. The Theban Mentuhotep II
ultimately reunited Lower and Upper Egypt, and Nubia was reconquered as
far as Lower Nubia
The beginning of the Middle Kingdom was the reunification of the empire
under Mentuhotep II in the middle of the 11th Dynasty. The early Middle
Kingdom lasted until around Sesostris II. The late Middle Kingdom (from
Sesostris III to the 13th Dynasty) was characterized by a renewed
centralization of the country. The ideal ruler was no longer a young,
idealized pharaoh, but a wise, experienced ruler.
The end of the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the Second
Intermediate Period was caused by disputes over the throne,
fragmentation and the invasion of the Hyksos.
The New Kingdom is characterized by a considerably greater involvement
in external conflicts, initially in Syria against the Hittites and
Mittani, but also against the city states there, in the late period
against the Sea Peoples, then against the Libyans and Nubians. But the
intensified trade in times of peace and the productivity of the country
itself brought about visible prosperity in wider circles than before,
which was reflected in buildings all over the country. The large
temples, which were built for the deified pharaohs, became powerful
landowners. Finally, religious conflicts arose and the Amun priesthood
became increasingly dominant.
The beginning of the Late Period is generally considered to
be the transition from Nubian to Saite rule. The Late Period also
includes the periods of Achaemenid foreign rule and ends with the
Macedonian occupation of the country under Alexander the Great.